Nondestructive evaluation a tool in design manufacturing and service First Edition by Don Bray, Roderick Stanley 9781351989510 1351989510

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ISBN 10: 1351989510
ISBN 13: 9781351989510
Author: Don Bray, Roderick Stanley

Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) inspection schemes are important in design, manufacturing, and maintenance. By correctly applying techniques of NDE, we can reduce machine and system failures and increase reliability of operating systems over an extended lifetime. Nondestructive Evaluation: A Tool in Design, Manufacturing, and Service introduces and discusses primary techniques used in the field, including ultrasonics, acoustic emission, magnetics, radiography, penetrants, and eddy currents. Examples of each of these techniques are included, demonstrating typical applications.

Nondestructive evaluation a tool in design manufacturing and service First Table of contents:

PART I Probability, Design, and Management in Nondestructive Evaluation

1 NDE in Design, Maintenance and Service

1-1 Introduction

1-2 Benefits of NDE

1-3 Visual Inspections

1-4 Choosing the NDE Technique

1-5 Human Factors

1-6 Qualifications of NDE Personnel

1-7 Summary

2 Probability Applications in Nondestructive Evaluation

2-1 Introduction

2-2 Probability in Nondestructive Evaluation

2-3 Probability Events and Combinations

2-4 Probability Sample Spaces and Flaw Size Distributions

2-5 Conditional Probability

2-6 Effect of Inspection on Flaw Size Distribution

2-7 Data Set Characteristics

2-8 Summary

3 Nondestructive Evaluation in Design

3-1 Introduction

3-2 NDE in Design for Performance

3-3 Design for Inspectability

3-4 Failure Rate, Reliability, and NDE

3-5 Flaw Characteristics and NDE

3-6 Fracture Mechanics and NDE

3-7 Summary

4 Inspection Optimization Using Probabilistic Criteria

4-1 Introduction

4-2 Probability of Detection

4-3 Cost and Benefit Analysis for NDE in Manufacturing and Maintenance

4-4 Probabilistic NDE Decisions

4-5 Risk-Based Inspection

4-6 Retirement for Cause

4-7 Summary

Problems

References

PART II Ultrasonic Techniques in Nondestructive Evaluation

5 Elastic Wave Propagation

5-1 Introduction

5-2 One-Dimensional (Plane) Waves

5-3 Bulk Waves

5-4 Particle Motion, Wave Fronts, Wavelength, Frequency, and Wave Speed

5-5 Reflection and Refraction at Interfaces

5-5.1 Normal Incidence

5-5.2 Oblique Incidence

5-6 Pulse Characteristics—Dispersion

5-7 Attenuation and Scattering

5-8 Temperature Effect on Wave Speeds in Solids

5-9 Summary

6 Wave Propagation in Guided Wave Modes

6-1 Introduction

6-2 Surface (Rayleigh) Waves

6-3 Waves in Plates, Bars, and Rods

6-4 Leaky Lamb Waves

6-5 Summary

7 Ultrasonic Circuitry and Transducers

7-1 Introduction

7-2 Piezoelectric Transducers

7-3 Ultrasonic Circuitry for Piezoelectric Transducers

7-4 Transducer Characteristics

7-5 Beam Characteristics

7-6 Focused Probes

7-7 Electromagnetic-Acoustic (EMAT) Probes

7-8 Laser Generation and Reception of Ultrasound

7-9 Array Transducers

7-10 Discussion and Summary

8 Inspection Principles and Techniques

8-1 Introduction

8-2 Normal Incidence Pulse–Echo Inspection

8-3 Normal Incidence Piich–Catch Inspection

8-4 Angle Beam Pulse-Echo Inspection

8-4.1 Shear Wave Angle Beam Inspection

8-4.2 Longitudinal Wave Angle Beam Inspection

8-5 Angle Beam, Pitch-Catch Inspection

8-6 Criteria for Probe Selection

8-6.1 Flaw Size Sensitivity

8-6.2 Beam Divergence

8-6.3 Penetration

8-6.4 Resolution

8-7 Operation of Ultrasonic Inspection Instruments

8-8 Techniques for Normal Beam Ultrasonic Inspection

8-8.1 Fatigue Cracks

8-8.2 Inclusions, Slag, Porosity, and Large Grain Structure

8-8.3 Press Fits

8-8.4 Spurious Reflections at Fillets on Machined Shafts

8-8.5 Long Bars and Inertial Welds

8-8.6 Effects of Material Structure on Ultrasonic Inspection

8-8.7 Attenuation Measurement

8-8.8 Thickness Measurements

8-8.9 Detection of Corrosion and Hydrogen Attack

8-9 Techniques for Angle Beam Ultrasonic Inspection

8-9.1 Inspection for Planar Cracks Using Angle Beam Probes

8-9.2 Weld Inspection

8-9.3 Detection of Corrosion and Hydrogen Attack

8-9.4 Pipe Inspection

8-10 Techniques for Surface Wave Inspections

8-11 Inspection with Lamb Waves

8-12 Surface and Near-Surface Inspections Using Critically Refracted Waves

8-12.1 Inspecting Layered Material Using Higher-Order Rayleigh Waves

8-13 Flaw Sizing and Characterization

8-13.1 Amplitude Down Methods

8-13.2 Time-of-Flight (Diffraction) Techniques

8-13.3 Ultrasonic Sizing of Small Flaws with the Distance-Amplitude-Correction (DAC) Curve

8-13.4 Comparison of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection and Sizing Methods

8-14 Flaw Imaging

8-14.1 B-scan

8-14.2 C-scan

8-15 Immersion Testing

8-16 Squirters and Wheel Transducers

8-17 Through-Transmission with Air Propagation Transducers

8-18 Frequency Analysis Techniques

8-19 Summary

9 Ultrasonic Techniques for Stress Measurement and Material Studies

9-1 Introduction

9-2 Ultrasonic Stress Measurement Techniques

9-2.1 Theoretical Background

9-2.2 Experimental Measurement of Acoustoelastic Constants

9-2.3 Changes in Wave Travel-Time Associated with Varying Elastic Properties

9-2.4 Force Measurement with LCR Waves

9-2.5 Using the Empirical, Zero Force Time-Base for Applied Force Measurement

9-2.6 Ultrasonic Stress Measurement in Welded Plates

9-2.7 Summary

9-3 Application of the LCR Technique for Evaluating Nodularity and Residual Stresses in Ductile Cast Iron

9-4 Wave Velocity Changes in Textured Crystalline Materials

9-4.1 Effect of Preferred Orientation (Texture) on Wave Speed

9-4.2 Ultrasonic Determination of Preferred Orientation

9-4.3 Summary

9-5 Grain Size Determination Using Ultrasonic Pulse Scattering

9-6 Characterization of Composite Materials

9-7 Summary

Problems

References

PART III Acoustic Emission Techniques in Nondestructive Evaluation

10 Acoustic Emission Principles

10-1 Introduction

10-2 Sources

10-2.1 AE Source in Steels

10-2.2 AE Signal Intensity in Metals and Alloys

10-2.3 AE Signal Intensity in FRP Composite Material

10-2.4 AE Signals in Concrete

10-2.5 AE Signals from Tanks and Containers

10-3 Characteristics of AE Signals

10-3.1 Kaiser and Felicity Effects

10-3.2 Wave Propagation Characteristics

11 Data Collection and Analysis Techniques

11-1 AE Sensors

11-2 Signal Parameters

11-3 Data Quality Analyses

11-3.1 Instrumentation

11-3.2 System Calibration

11-3.3 Source Location Schemes

11-3.4 Characterizing Emission Sources

12 Applications of Acoustic Emission in NDE

12-1 Pressure Vessels

12-2 Railroad Tank Cars

12-3 Inspection of Bridges

12-4 Damage Evaluation Using Acousto-Ultrasonics

12-5 Other Applications

Problems

References

PART IV Magnetic Flux Leakage Techniques in Nondestructive Evaluation

13 Basic Magnetism for NDE

13-1 Introduction

13-2 General Physical Units

13-3 The Magnetic Pole

13-4 Lines of Force

13-5 Magnetic Flux Density (B)

13-6 Magnetic Field Intensity (H)

13-7 Magnetic Field Intensity Due to a Bar Magnet

13-8 Pole Concept in NDE

13-9 Magnetic Moment

13-10 The Magnetic Dipole

13-11 Magnetic Effects of Steady Currents

13-11.1 Magnetic Field Intensity Due to a Current in a Straight Wire

13-11.2 Magnetic Field Intensity Due to a Current Loop

13-11.3 Magnetic Field Intensity on the Axis of a Coil

13-11.4 Magnetic Field Intensity Due to a Helmholtz Pair

13-11.5 Magnetic Field Intensity of a Solenoidal Coil

13-11.6 The Ring Solenoid

14 Magnetism in Materials

14-1 Introduction

14-2 Magnetization

14-3 Diamagnctism

14-4 Paramagnetism

14-5 Ferromagnetism

14-5.1 Rowland Ring Method

14-5.2 General Results from Rowland Ring Test

14-5.3 Specific Results for Some Ferromagnetic Materials

14-5.4 Explanation of Ferromagnetism—The Domain Theory

14-5.5 Domain Arrangements at Various States of Magnetism

14-5.6 Ferromagnetic Alloys

14-6 Ferrimagnetism

14-7 Measurements of the Magnetic Properties of Materials

14-8 Magnetic Permeability

14-9 Range of Magnetic Parameters in NDE

14-10 Magnet Materials and Transformer Steels

14-11 Measurement of Loss of Cross-Sectional Area of Tubes and Rods

15 Macroscopic Field Relations

15-1 Introduction

15-2 Magnetization and Amperian Current Distributions

15-3 Magnetic Field Produced by a Magnetic Material

15-4 Magnetic Pole Density

15-5 Magnetic Field Density

15-6 Ampere’s Circuital Law

15-6.1 Magnetic Field Intensity Inside and Outside a Straight Wire

15-6.2 Modification to Include Magnetic Material

15-6.3 Magnetization of Tubes by the Current Method

15-7 Susceptibility and Permeability

15-8 Magnetic Boundary Conditions

15-8.1 Continuity of Flux

15-8.2 Discontinuous Nature of H

15-8.3 Continuity of Normal Component of Β

15-8.4 Tangential Surface Boundary Condition

15-8.5 Static Permeability Relation

16 The Magnetic Circuit

16-1 Introduction

16-2 Toroid of Differing Materials

16-3 Magnetic Circuit of a Permanent Magnet

16-4 Residually Magnetized Slit Ring

16-4.1 Comparison with Experiment

16-5 Demagnetization Field

16-6 Demagnetization Factor Curves

16-7 Apparent Permeability

16-8 Apparent Permeability of Very Short Parts

16-9 Effect of the Demagnetizing Field

16-10 Coil Magnetization of Short Parts

16-11 Magnetic Circuits Used in Inspection

16-11.1 Elongated Tubes and Rods

16-11.2 Wire Rope Inspection

16-11.3 Internal Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe Inspection

16-11.4 Ends of Tubes and Rods

16-11.5 Local Yoke Magnetization

16-11.6 Yokes in Rail Inspection

16-12 Other Flux Loop Applications

17 Magnetism in the Circumferential Direction

17-1 Introduction

17-2 Current Applied to the Part

17-3 The Internal Conductor Method

17-3.1 Central Conductor Method

17-3.2 Capacitor Discharge Magnetization

17-3.3 Flux Density Within Tube Wall

17-3.4 Multiple Pulsing

17-3.5 Conductor Offcentering

17-4 Yoke or Part Rotation Method

17-4.1 Eddy Currents in Rotating Yoke Inspection

17-4.2 Tube Inspection

18 Field Levels in Magnetic NDE

18-1 Introduction

18-2 Leakage Fields from a Slot

18-3 Surface Inspection—Active Field

18-4 Surface Inspection—Residual Induction

18-5 Subsurface Inspection—Active Field

18-6 Subsurface Inspection—Residual Induction

18-7 Causes of Surface Noise

18-7.1 Examples of Surface Noise

19 Magnetic Flux Leakage from Tight Flaws

19-1 Introduction

19-2 Angle of Applied Field to Flaw

19-3 Basic Förster Theory for a Through Slit

19-3.1 Magnetic Circuit for a Through Slit

19-3.2 The Magnetic Leakage Field Around the Through Slit

19-4 Karlqvist’s Equations for a Through Slit

19-5 Leakage Field Theories for a Finite Slot

19-5.1 Förster’s Theory

19-5.2 Theory of Zatsepin and Shcherbinin

19-5.3 Depressed Dipole Model

19-6 Comments on Dipole Theories for Perpendicular Slots

19-7 Comparison with Test Data

19-8 Measured Variations for Slot Depth and Width

19-9 Classical MFL Theory for Oblique Surface Flaws

20 Magnetic Flux Leakage from Subsurface Flaws

20-1 Introduction

20-2 Subsurface Cylindrical Hole

20-2.1 Predictions

20-2.2 Comparison with Experimental Results

20-3 Subsurface Spherical Inclusion

20-3.1 Predictions

20-3.2 Comparison with Experimental Results

21 Magnetic Flux Leakage Sensors

21-1 Introduction

21-2 The Hall Element

21-2.1 Theory

21-2.2 Manufacture and Sensitivity

21-2.3 Typical Applications

21-3 The Magnetodiode

21-3.1 Theory

21-3.2 Typical Application

21-4 Magnetic Recording Tape

21-4.1 Theory

21-4.2 Typical Application

21-5 The Pick-Up Coil

21-5.1 The Straight Wire

21-5.2 The Perpendicular Coil

21-5.3 Application of Perpendicular Coils in Tube Inspection

21-5.4 The Parallel Coil

21-5.5 Applications of Parallel Coils

21-5.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Coils

21-6 The Förster Microprobe

21-6.1 Theory

21-6.2 Examples of Microprobe Use

21-7 The Magnetic Particle

21-7.1 Current Requirements for MPI

21-7.2 Forces on Particles

21-7.3 Particle Size and Testing

21-7.4 Use of Ultraviolet Light

21-7.5 Specialized Applications

21-7.6 Magnetic Particle Surface Field Indicators

22 Demagnetization

22-1 Introduction

22-2 Circumferential Remagnetization

22-3 Alternating Current Demagnetization

22-4 Direct Current Coil Demagnetization

22-5 Flux Sensed Demagnetization

22-6 Demagnetization of Irregularly Shaped Parts

Problems

References

Projects

PART V Eddy Current Techniques in Nondestructive Evaluation

23 Fundamental Eddy Current Concepts

23-1 Introduction

23-2 Equipment Requirements

23-3 Generation and Detection of Eddy Currents

23-4 Nature of Eddy Currents

23-5 Standard Penetration Depth and Phase Lag

23-6 Effective Depth of Penetration

24 Eddy Current Detector Parameters

24-1 Introduction

24-2 Coil Sensors

24-2.1 Coil Resistance

24-2.2 Variation of Resistance with Temperature

24-2.3 Variation of Resistance with Frequency

24-2.4 Coil Inductance

24-2.5 Coil Inductive Reactance

24-2.6 Total Coil Impedance

24-3 Single Test Coil Reactance Near Nonmagnetic and Magnetic and Materials

24-3.1 Lift Off Effects

24-3.2 Cup-Core and Shielded Probes

24-4 Encircling and Inner Diameter Coils

24-4.1 Encircling Absolute Coils

24-4.2 Internal Absolute Coils

24-4.3 Encircling Differential Coils

24-4.4 Internal Differential Coils

24-4.5 Dependence of Signal on Fill-Factor

24-5 Probe Arrays

25 Remote Field Eddy Current Techniques

25-1 Introduction

25-2 Schmidt Experiment

25-3 Explanation of the Effect

25-3.1 Example Using Phase Analysis

25-4 Detected Signal Strength

25-5 Applications of RFEC

25-5.1 Casing Equipment Design

25-5.2 Determination of Stuck Point

25-5.3 Heat Exchanger and Boiler Inspection

26 Impedance Plane Diagrams

26-1 Introduction

26-2 Voltage Plane Analysis for a Constant Voltage Circuit

26-3 Normalization

26-3.1 Nonmagnetic Parts

26-3.2 Ferromagnetic Parts

26-4 Characteristic Frequency

26-5 Concept of Effective Permeability

26-6 Examples of the Use of Impedance Plane Diagrams for Cylindrical Objects

26-6.1 Bars, Rods, Wires (Solid)

26-6.2 Thin-walled Tubes

26-6.3 Thick-walled Tubes

26-7 Surface Current Densities in Tube Inspection

26-8 Surface Field Intensity Ratios in Tube Inspection

26-9 Crack Signal Analysis on Complex Plane for Bars and Tubes

26-10 Concept of Transmission Coefficient

26-11 Impedance Plane for Through Transmission Testing

26-12 Impedance Plane for Probe Coil Analyses

26-13 Conductivity and Lift Off Measurements

26-13.1 General Comments

26-13.2 Conductivity Measurements

26-13.3 Thickness Meaurements

26-13.4 Thickness of Nonconductive Layers

26-13.5 Thickness of Conductive Layers

26-13.6 Impedance Plane for Cracks in Nonmagnetic Materials with a Probe Coil

26-14 Magnetic Permeability Used in Eddy Current Testing

27 Eddy Current Instrumentation

27-1 Conductivity and Wall Thickness

27-1.1 Background to Conductivity Measurements

27-1.2 Aluminum Properties

27-1.3 Lift-Off Effects

27-1.4 Single Phasorscope Units

27-1.5 Dedicated Instruments

27-1.6 Dual Frequency Measurement of Τ and σ

27-1.7 Absolute Method with Through Transmission Testing

27-2 Crack Detection

27-2.1 Dedicated Instruments

27-2.2 Phasorscope Instruments

27-2.3 Differential Method

27-2.4 Bolthole Inspection

27-3 Hysteresis Loop Analysis

27-4 Multifrequency Tests

27-5 Steel Inspection Applications

27-5.1 Hot Steel Inspection

27-5.2 Roll Inspection

27-5.3 Magnetizing Field Strength Effects

Problems

References

Projects

PART VI Radiographic Techniques in Nondestructive Evaluation

28 Principles of Radiation

28-1 Introduction

28-2 Basic Principles of Radiographic Inspection

28-3 Physics of Radiographic NDE

28-4 Electromagnetic Radiation Sources

28-4.1 Gamma Ray Sources

28-4.2 Characteristics of X-ray Sources

28-5 Particle Sources

28-5.1 Thermal Neutron Sources

28-5.2 Proton Sources

28-6 Geometric Unsharpness

28-7 Intensity Change with Distance

28-8 Absorption and Scattering of Radiation Energy

28-8.1 Structure of Crystalline Materials

28-8.2 Scattering Mechanisms for Electromagnetic Radiation

28-8.3 Scattering Mechanisms for Particle Radiation

28-9 Secondary Radiation

28-9.1 Broad-Beam and Narrow-Beam Geometry

28-9.2 Build-up Factor

28-10 Summary

29 Radiographic Imaging

29-1 Introduction

29-2 Radiographic Images

29-3 Image Recording

29-3.1 Film Radiography

29-3.2 Real-Time Radiography (Radioscopy) and Image Data Analysis

29-3.3 Radiographic Tomography

29-4 Source-lo-Film Distance

29-5 Determining Radiographic Exposure

29-6 Radiographic Sensitivity

29-7 Evaluating Image Quality and Sensitivity

29-8 Summary

30 Radiographic Inspection Systems

30-1 Introduction

30-2 Filters and Screens

30-3 Typical Source Handling Device for Isotopes

30-4 X-Ray Machines

30-5 Real Time Radiography System

30-6 Neutron Particle Machines

30-7 Proton Sources

30-8 Radiographic Inspection Facilities

30-9 Summary

31 Radiographic Inspections

31-1 Introduction

31-2 Radiographic Appearance of Commonly Occurring Anomalies

31-3 Inspection of Uniform Flat Sections

31-4 Inspection of Circular Sections

31-5 Inspection of Irregular Shapes

31-6 Effects of Material Property Variations on Radiographic Inspections

31-7 Summary

32 Other Applications of Radiography in NDE

32-1 Introduction

32-2 Inspections Using Computed Tomography (CT)

32-3 Microfocus and Real-Time Radiography

32-4 Flash Radiography

32-5 Electron Radiography

32-6 Inspection with Thermal Neutrons

32-7 Inspection with Protons

32-8 Material Investigations Using Diffraction Techniques

32-8.1 X-ray Measurement of Stress

32-8.2 Material Studies Using Radiographic Techniques

32-9 Summary

33 Safety Considerations in Radiographic Inspections

33-1 Introduction

33-2 Radiation Exposure and Dosage

33-3 Radiation Monitoring

33-4 Protection of Work Spaces

33-5 Licensing of Radiographic Work

33-6 Summary

Problems

References

PART VII Penetrant Techniques in Nondestructive Evaluation

34 Principles of Penetrants

34-1 Introduction

34-2 Principles of Fluid Mechanics on Surfaces

34-2.1 Surface Tension

34-2.2 Capillarity

34-3 Optical Principles in Defect Recognition

34-3.1 Visible Light Spectrum

34-3.2 Fluorescence and Ultraviolet Lighting

34-3.3 Laser Scanners

34-4 Background Control—Contrasts

34-5 Material Properties Affecting Penetrant Inspection

34-6 Summary

35 Techniques for Penetrant Inspection

35-1 Introduction

35-2 Basic Techniques for Penetrant Inspection

35-3 Penetrant Materials and Processes

35-3.1 Penetrants

35-3.2 Cleaners and Emutsifiers

35-3.3 Developers

35-4 Defect Recognition

35-4.1 Visible Dye Penetrants

35-4.2 Penetrant Brilliance

35-4.3 Visual Scan—Lighting and Detection

35-4.4 Automated Scan—Lighting and Detection

35-5 Typical Penetrant Indications

35-6 Temperature Effects on Penetrant Inspection

35-7 Harmful Effects of Contiminants on High Strength and High Temperature Alloys

35-8 Summary

36 Penetrant Inspection Applications

36-1 Introduction

36-2 Penetrant Inspection Systems

36-2.1 Water Washable Method

36-2.2 Postemulsifiable Method

36-2.3 Solvent Removable Method

36-2.4 Work Stations for Penetrant Inspection

36-3 Inspection of Large Components and Piping

36-4 Inspection of Composites and Adhesively Bonded Structures

36-5 Leak Detection

36-6 Summary

37 Summary, Safety and Environmental Considerations

37-1 Introduction

37-2 Safety Considerations

37-2.1 Effects on Personnel

37-2.2 Fire and Explosion

37-2.3 Effect of Ultraviolet Light on the Human Eye

37-3 Environmental Effects of Penetrant Process Chemicals

37-4 Summary

Problems

References

Appendices

A Modeling and Analysis of Experimental Data

B Attenuation Coefficients for Selected Elements

C NDE Codes, Specifications, and Standards

Index

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